Understanding Adverse Drug Effects and The Clinical Pharmacist's Role in Their Management

Farid Ahmad Tanin

doi:10.62810/jnsr.v2i4.106

Authors

Farid Ahmad Tanin Kabul University, Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Afghanistan

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.62810/jnsr.v2i4.106

Keywords:

Adverse Drug Effects, Organotoxicity, Idiosyncratic Effects, Allergic Effects, Pseudoallergic Effects, Clinical Pharmacists

Abstract

Pharmacological interventions are the cornerstone of modern medical treatment, designed to address specific diseases, alleviate symptoms, and improve patients' quality of life. However, misconceptions persist regarding drug effects, such as the belief that all pharmacological effects are beneficial and that all side effects are adverse. Clinical Pharmacists (CPs) play a crucial role in managing drug-related problems, but their contributions remain underrecognized in Afghanistan. This study aims to address these misconceptions and emphasize the role of CPs in managing adverse drug effects (ADEs). A comprehensive literature review was conducted to explore the categorization of drug effects and the role of CPs in ADE management. The findings reveal that pharmacological effects are not always the intended effects, and side effects are not always adverse. CPs are vital in identifying risk factors such as polypharmacy and specific drug characteristics, establishing therapeutic goals, and mitigating ADEs. In conclusion, drug ineffectiveness and lack of efficacy should be categorized as ADEs, and side effects that contribute to therapeutic outcomes should not be deemed adverse. Integrating CPs more effectively into healthcare systems is essential to optimize medication management, ensure safer treatments, and enhance patient outcomes.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

A.Mshiemish, B. (2017). Role of the Clinical Pharmacist in Reducing Preventable Adverse Drug Events. Iraqi Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 20(2), 85–90. https://doi.org/10.31351/vol20iss2pp85-90 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31351/vol20iss2pp85-90

Al-mutairi, A. A. T., Al-mutlaq, K. F. A., Saad, A., Alruwaili, S., Falah, W., & Alenezi, N. (2024). A Comprehensive Review of Medication Errors in Pediatrics and Adults : Types , Causes , And the Role of The Pharmacist in Prevention. 7.

Alghamdi, A. A. M. (2021). Medication Safety in Neonatal and C hildren ’ s Intensive Care A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Biology , Medicine and Health Anwar Ali M Alghamdi Division of Pharmacy and Optometr. 278.

Alkhalifah, B. F., Alessa, R. F., Alhumaidi, R. M., Sundus, A., Abdulsalim, S., Jabeen, A., & Ismail, W. I. (2023). Attitudes and Practices of Community Pharmacists toward the Risk of Medication Use by Pregnant Women: A Cross-Sectional Study in the Qassim Region, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Hunan University Natural Sciences, 50(11). https://doi.org/10.55463/issn.1674-2974.50.11.7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.55463/issn.1674-2974.50.11.7

Alqurbi, M., & Atiah, M. (2020). The role of clinical pharmacists in reducing adverse drug reactions. International Journal of Medicine in Developing Countries, 4(1), 236–239. https://doi.org/10.24911/ijmdc.51-1570008849 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24911/IJMDC.51-1570008849

Alsultan, A., & Peloquin, C. A. (2014). Therapeutic drug monitoring in the treatment of tuberculosis: An update. Drugs, 74(8), 839–854. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-014-0222-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-014-0222-8

Azad, M. A., Nesar, A. J., & Ghafari, A. T. (2024). Bibliometric Analysis of Pyrimidine Compounds with Anti-cancer Activity : Research Trends from 2015 to 2023. 2(3), 1–16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.62810/jnsr.v2i3.61

Bailey, C., Peddie, D., Wickham, M. E., Badke, K., Small, S. S., Doyle-Waters, M. M., Balka, E., & Hohl, C. M. (2016). Adverse drug event reporting systems: a systematic review. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 17–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/bcp.12944 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bcp.12944

Baldo, B. A. (2023). MRGPRX2, drug pseudoallergies, inflammatory diseases, mechanisms and distinguishing MRGPRX2- and IgE/FcεRI-mediated events. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 89(11), 3232–3246. https://doi.org/10.1111/bcp.15845 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bcp.15845

Bangwal, R., Bisht, S., Saklani, S., Garg, S., & Dhayani, M. (2020). Psychotic Disorders, Definition, Sign and Symptoms, Antipsychotic Drugs, Mechanism of Action, Pharmacokinetics & Pharmacodynamics with Side Effects & Adverse Drug Reactions: Updated Systematic Review Article. Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics, 10(1), 163–172. https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v10i1.3865 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v10i1.3865

Bano, N., Najam, R., & Qazi, F. (2012). Irrational drug use based on self medication for some common clinical conditions in an educated population of Karachi. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 28(3), 359–362.

Barnett, L. M. A., & Cummings, B. S. (2018). Nephrotoxicity and renal pathophysiology: A contemporary perspective. Toxicological Sciences, 164(2), 379–390. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfy159 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfy159

Bartelink, I. H., Rademaker, C. M. A., Schobben, A. F. A. M., & Van Den Anker, J. N. (2006). Guidelines on paediatric dosing on the basis of developmental physiology and pharmacokinetic considerations. Clinical Pharmacokinetics, 45(11), 1077–1097. https://doi.org/10.2165/00003088-200645110-00003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00003088-200645110-00003

Belver, M. T., Michavila, A., Bobolea, I., Feito, M., Bellón, T., & Quirce, S. (2016). Severe delayed skin reactions related to drugs in the paediatric age group: A review of the subject by way of three cases (Stevens-Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis and DRESS). Allergologia et Immunopathologia, 44(1), 83–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aller.2015.02.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aller.2015.02.004

Bilge, S. (2016). We are IntechOpen , the world ’ s leading publisher of Open Access books Built by scientists , for scientists TOP 1 %. In Intech (Vol. 11, Issue tourism, p. 13). https://www.intechopen.com/books/advanced-biometric-technologies/liveness-detection-in-biometrics

Bishop, J. R., Schneiderhan, M. E., Butler, T., Carpentier, R. M., Heins, K. R., & Formea, C. M. (2024). Pharmacogenomics to support mental health medication therapy management: Clinical practice considerations and a conceptual framework to enhance patient care. JACCP Journal of the American College of Clinical Pharmacy, 7(2), 160–170. https://doi.org/10.1002/jac5.1892 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jac5.1892

Blenkinsopp, A., Paxton, P., & Blenkinsopp, J. (2008). Symptoms in the Pharmacy. In Symptoms in the Pharmacy. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444300611 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444300611

Bonilla-Jaime, H., Sánchez-Salcedo, J. A., Estevez-Cabrera, M. M., Molina-Jiménez, T., Cortes-Altamirano, J. L., & Alfaro-Rodríguez, A. (2021). Depression and Pain: Use of Antidepressants. Current Neuropharmacology, 20(2), 384–402. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x19666210609161447 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159X19666210609161447

Boyd, C. M., Darer, J., Boult, C., Fried, L. P., Boult, L., & Wu, A. W. (2005). Clinical practice guidelines and quality of care for older patients with multiple comorbid diseases: Implications for pay for performance. Jama, 294(6), 716–724. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.294.6.716 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.294.6.716

Carlqvist, C., Ekstedt, M., & Lehnbom, E. C. (2024). Exploring the impact of pharmacist-supported medication reviews in dementia care: experiences of general practitioners and nurses. BMC Geriatrics, 24(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-024-05124-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-024-05124-9

Casey, D. E. (1997). Pharmacology to Side Effects yr ht a In. 55–62.

Cerniglia, C. E., & Kotarski, S. (2005). Approaches in the safety evaluations of veterinary antimicrobial agents in food to determine the effects on the human intestinal microflora. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 28(1), 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2885.2004.00595.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2885.2004.00595.x

Chaudhry, S. B., Veve, M. P., & Wagner, J. L. (2019). Cephalosporins: A Focus on Side Chains and β-Lactam Cross-Reactivity. Pharmacy, 7(3), 103. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmacy7030103 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmacy7030103

Cheng, W., & Wang, X. (2010). Evaluation of the joint use of accident count and accident reduction potential to identify hotspot. Presented at 89th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, 40(9), 794–811. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.MLR.0000024612.61915.2D

Chinemerem Nwobodo, D., Ugwu, M. C., Oliseloke Anie, C., Al-Ouqaili, M. T. S., Chinedu Ikem, J., Victor Chigozie, U., & Saki, M. (2022). Antibiotic resistance: The challenges and some emerging strategies for tackling a global menace. Journal of Clinical Laboratory Analysis, 36(9), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcla.24655 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jcla.24655

Daly, A. K. (2013). Pharmacogenomics of adverse drug reactions. Genome Medicine, 5(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/gm409 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/gm409

Del Pozzo-Magaña, B. R., & Liy-Wong, C. (2024). Drugs and the skin: A concise review of cutaneous adverse drug reactions. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 90(8), 1838–1855. https://doi.org/10.1111/bcp.15490 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bcp.15490

Delafuente, J. C. (2008). Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic alterations in the geriatric patient. Consultant Pharmacist, 23(4), 324–334. https://doi.org/10.4140/TCP.n.2008.324 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4140/TCP.n.2008.324

Due, A. (2023). What are side effects? European Journal for Philosophy of Science, 13(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13194-023-00519-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13194-023-00519-8

Duffus, J. H., Nordberg, M., & Templeton, D. M. (2007). Glossary of terms used in toxicology, 2nd edition (IUPAC recommendations 2007). Pure and Applied Chemistry, 79(7), 1153–1344. https://doi.org/10.1351/pac200779071153 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1351/pac200779071153

Dunn, S. P., Birtcher, K. K., Beavers, C. J., Baker, W. L., Brouse, S. D., Page, R. L., Bittner, V., & Walsh, M. N. (2015). The Role of the Clinical Pharmacist in the Care of Patients with Cardiovascular Disease. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 66(19), 2129–2139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2015.09.025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2015.09.025

Edwards, I. R., & Aronson, J. K. (2000). Adverse drug reactions: Definitions, diagnosis, and management. Lancet, 356(9237), 1255–1259. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02799-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02799-9

Eichler, H., Abadie, E., Breckenridge, A., Flamion, B., Gustafsson, L. L., Leufkens, H., Rowland, M., Schneider, C. K., & Bloechl-daum, B. (2011). Bridging the efficacy–effectiveness gap: a regulator’s perspective on addressing variability of drug response. 10(July), 495–506. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd3501

Eliseeva, T. I., & Balabolkin, I. I. (2016). Drug allergic reactions: Current views (Review). Sovremennye Tehnologii v Medicine, 8(1), 159–170. https://doi.org/10.17691/stm2016.8.1.22 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17691/stm2016.8.1.22

Enemchukwu, E. A., Subak, L. L., & Markland, A. (2022). Barriers and facilitators to overactive bladder therapy adherence. Neurourology and Urodynamics, 41(8), 1983–1992. https://doi.org/10.1002/nau.24936 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/nau.24936

Faucon, A.-L., Bobrie, G., & Clément, O. (2019). Nephrotoxicity of iodinated contrast media: from pathophysiology to prevention strategies. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrad.2019.03.008

Ferguson, M. A., & Waikar, S. S. (2012). Established and Emerging Markers of Kidney Function. Physiology & Behavior, 176(1), 139–148. https://doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2011.167494.Established

Fernando, S. L. (2016). Severe Cutaneous Adverse Reactions. Intech, 11(tourism), 13. https://www.intechopen.com/books/advanced-biometric-technologies/liveness-detection-in-biometrics

Fillmore, M. T., Mulvihill, L. E., & Vogel-Sprott, M. (1994). The expected drug and its expected effect interact to determine placebo responses to alcohol and caffeine. Psychopharmacology, 115(3), 383–388. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02245081 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02245081

Flores, J., Flank, J., Polito, S., Dhillon, P., Pang, I., Ho, L., & Yee, K. W. L. (2024). Evaluation of voriconazole therapeutic drug monitoring in malignant hematology patients. Journal of Oncology Pharmacy Practice. https://doi.org/10.1177/10781552241284528 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/10781552241284528

Fokunang, C. (2018). Overview of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (nsaids) in resource limited countries. MOJ Toxicology, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.15406/mojt.2018.04.00081 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15406/mojt.2018.03.00081

Fragkas, N. (2020). Immunological Investigations Into Naproxen-Induced Idiosyncratic Hepatotoxicity.

Franz, C. C. (2012). Drug-related Problems and Dosage Adjustment in Patients with Liver Disease.

Fricke, C., & Voderholzer, U. (2023). Endocrinology of Underweight and Anorexia Nervosa. Nutrients, 15(16), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15163509 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15163509

Fritsch, P. O., & Sidoroff, A. (2000). Drug-Induced Stevens-Johnson Syndrome / Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis. 1(6), 349–360. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00128071-200001060-00003

Fusco, S., Garasto, S., Corsonello, A., Vena, S., Mari, V., Gareri, P., Ruotolo, G., Luciani, F., Roncone, A., Maggio, M., & Lattanzio, F. (2016). Medication-Induced Nephrotoxicity in Older Patients. Current Drug Metabolism, 17(6), 608–625. https://doi.org/10.2174/1389200217666160406115959 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/1389200217666160406115959

Gabay, M., & Spencer, S. H. (2021). Drug Interactions: Scientific and Clinical Principles. PSAP 2021 Book 3: Chronic Conditions and Public Health, 7–28.

Gelberg, H., & States, U. (2020). Pathophysiological Mechanisms of Gastrointestinal Toxicity. January.

Giannitrapani, K. F., Glassman, P. A., Vang, D., McKelvey, J. C., Thomas Day, R., Dobscha, S. K., & Lorenz, K. A. (2018). Expanding the role of clinical pharmacists on interdisciplinary primary care teams for chronic pain and opioid management. BMC Family Practice, 19(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12875-018-0783-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12875-018-0783-9

Giles, A., Foushee, J., Lantz, E., & Gumina, G. (2019). Sulfonamide Allergies. Pharmacy, 7(3), 132. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmacy7030132 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmacy7030132

Glauser, T. A. (2000). Idiosyncratic Reactions: New Methods. 41, 16–29. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.2000.tb02943.x

Gouju, J., & Legeay, S. (2023). Pharmacokinetics of obese adults: Not only an increase in weight. Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy, 166(June), 115281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115281 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115281

Griffiths, S. K., & Campbell, J. P. (2015). Placental structure, function and drug transfer. Continuing Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care and Pain, 15(2), 84–89. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjaceaccp/mku013 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/bjaceaccp/mku013

Griggs, J. J., Bohlke, K., Balaban, E. P., Dignam, J. J., Hall, E. T., Harvey, R. D., Hecht, D. P., Klute, K. A., Morrison, V. A., Pini, T. M., Rosner, G. L., Runowicz, C. D., Shayne, M., Sparreboom, A., Turner, S., Zarwan, C., & Lyman, G. H. (2021). Appropriate systemic therapy dosing for obese adult patients with cancer: ASCO Guideline update. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 39(18), 2037–2048. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.21.00471 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.21.00471

Gunaydin, C., & Bilge, S. S. (2018). Effects of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs at the molecular level. Eurasian Journal of Medicine, 50(2), 116–121. https://doi.org/10.5152/eurasianjmed.2018.0010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5152/eurasianjmed.2018.0010

Habet, S. (2021). Narrow therapeutic index drugs: Clinical pharmacology perspective. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 73(10), 1285–1291. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpp/rgab102 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jpp/rgab102

Hacker, M. (2009). Adverse Drug Reactions. In Pharmacology: Principles and Practice (1st ed.). Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-369521-5.00013-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-369521-5.00013-0

Hamilton, H. J., Gallagher, P. F., & O’Mahony, D. (2009). Inappropriate prescribing and adverse drug events in older people. BMC Geriatrics, 9(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2318-9-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2318-9-5

Hein, U. R., Chantraine-Hess, S., Worm, M., Zuberbier, T., & Henz, B. M. (1999). Evaluation of systemic provocation tests in patients with suspected allergic and pseudoallergic drug reactions. Acta Dermato-Venereologica, 79(2), 139–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/000155599750011372 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/000155599750011372

Heta, S., & Robo, I. (2018). The Side Effects of the Most Commonly Used Group of Antibiotics in Periodontal Treatments. Medical Sciences (Basel, Switzerland), 6(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.3390/medsci6010006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/medsci6010006

Hong, J., Ahn, S. Y., Lee, Y. J., Lee, J. H., Han, J. W., Kim, K. H., Yhim, H. Y., Nam, S. H., Kim, H. J., Song, J., Kim, S. H., Bang, S. M., Kim, J. S., Mun, Y. C., Bae, S. H., Kim, H. K., Jang, S., Park, R., Choi, H. S., … Oh, D. (2021). Updated recommendations for the treatment of venous thromboembolism. Blood Research, 56(1), 6–16. https://doi.org/10.5045/br.2021.2020083 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5045/br.2021.2020083

Iqubal, A., Ehtaishamul Haque, S., Sharma, S., Asif Ansari, M., Khan, V., & Kashif Iqubal, M. (2018). Clinical Updates on Drug-Induced Cardiotoxicity. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, 9(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.13040/ijpsr.0975-8232.9(1).16-26 DOI: https://doi.org/10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.9(1).16-26

Jadhav, P. R., Goyal, S., & Dhavalshankh, G. (2024). Comparative evaluation of liver function test in refractive psoriasis patients treated with tofacitinib and apremilast Comparative evaluation of liver function test in refractive psoriasis patients treated with tofacitinib and apremilast. October. https://doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20242885 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20242885

Jcs, K. A., Jstdm, T. S., Atarashi, H., & Doki, K. (2017). Guidelines for Therapeutic Drug Monitoring of Cardiovascular Drugs Clinical Use of Blood Drug Concentration Monitoring ( JCS 2015 ) ― Digest Version ―. 81(April), 581–612. https://doi.org/10.1253/circj.CJ-66-0138 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1253/circj.CJ-66-0138

Johnson, K. K., Green, D. L., Rife, J. P., & Limon, L. (2005). Sulfonamide cross-reactivity: Fact or fiction? Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 39(2), 290–301. https://doi.org/10.1345/aph.1E350 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1345/aph.1E350

Kang, J. S., & Lee, M. H. (2009). Overview of therapeutic drug monitoring. Korean Journal of Internal Medicine, 24(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3904/kjim.2009.24.1.1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3904/kjim.2009.24.1.1

Kaplowitz, N. (2005). Idiosyncratic drug hepatotoxicity. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery, 4(6), 489–499. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd1750 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd1750

Katarey, D., & Verma, S. (2016). Drug-induced liver injury. Clinical Medicine, Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of London, 16(6), s104–s109. https://doi.org/10.7861/clinmedicine.16-6-s104 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7861/clinmedicine.16-6-s104

Kim, J., & Shin, M. (2014). An integrative model of multi-organ drug-induced toxicity prediction using gene-expression data. BMC Bioinformatics, 15(16), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2105-15-S16-S2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2105-15-S16-S2

Kim, S. Y., Kim, M. H., & Cho, Y. J. (2018). Different clinical features of anaphylaxis according to cause and risk factors for severe reactions. Allergology International, 67(1), 96–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alit.2017.05.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alit.2017.05.005

Krause, D. S., Wolf, B. A., & Shaw, L. M. (1992). Acute aspirin overdose: Mechanisms of toxicity. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring, 14(6), 441–451. https://doi.org/10.1097/00007691-199212000-00001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00007691-199212000-00001

Krist, A. H., Tong, S. T., Aycock, R. A., & Longo, D. R. (2017). Engaging patients in decision-making and behavior change to promote prevention. Information Services and Use, 37(2), 105–122. https://doi.org/10.3233/ISU-170826 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3233/ISU-170826

Luri, M., Leache, L., Gastaminza, G., Idoate, A., & Ortega, A. (2022). A systematic review of drug allergy alert systems. International Journal of Medical Informatics, 159, 104673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2021.104673 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2021.104673

Mali, S. (2012). Anaphylaxis during the perioperative period. Anesthesia: Essays and Researches, 6(2), 124. https://doi.org/10.4103/0259-1162.108286 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/0259-1162.108286

Marques, L., Costa, B., Pereira, M., Silva, A., Santos, J., Saldanha, L., Silva, I., Magalhães, P., Schmidt, S., & Vale, N. (2024). Advancing Precision Medicine: A Review of Innovative In Silico Approaches for Drug Development, Clinical Pharmacology and Personalized Healthcare. Pharmaceutics, 16(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16030332 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics16030332

Mattox, T. W. (2017). Cancer Cachexia: Cause, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Nutrition in Clinical Practice, 32(5), 599–606. https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533617722986 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533617722986

Matzke, G. R., Aronoff, G. R., Atkinson, A. J., Bennett, W. M., Decker, B. S., Eckardt, K. U., Golper, T., Grabe, D. W., Kasiske, B., Keller, F., Kielstein, J. T., Mehta, R., Mueller, B. A., Pasko, D. A., Schaefer, F., Sica, D. A., Inker, L. A., Umans, J. G., & Murray, P. (2011). Drug dosing consideration in patients with acute and chronic kidney diseasea clinical update from Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO). Kidney International, 80(11), 1122–1137. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.2011.322 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.2011.322

Mirakian, R., Leech, S. C., Krishna, M. T., Richter, A. G., Huber, P. A. J., Farooque, S., Khan, N., Pirmohamed, M., Clark, A. T., & Nasser, S. M. (2015). Management of allergy to penicillins and other beta-lactams. Clinical and Experimental Allergy, 45(2), 300–327. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12468 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12468

Mladěnka, P., Applová, L., Patočka, J., Costa, V. M., Remiao, F., Pourová, J., Mladěnka, A., Karlíčková, J., Jahodář, L., Vopršalová, M., Varner, K. J., & Štěrba, M. (2018). Comprehensive review of cardiovascular toxicity of drugs and related agents. Medicinal Research Reviews, 38(4), 1332–1403. https://doi.org/10.1002/med.21476 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/med.21476

Möller, B., Pruijm, M., Adler, S., Scherer, A., Villiger, P. M., & Finckh, A. (2015). Chronic NSAID use and long-term decline of renal function in a prospective rheumatoid arthritis cohort study. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, 74(4), 718–723. https://doi.org/10.1136/annrheumdis-2013-204078 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/annrheumdis-2013-204078

Morrish, G. A., Pai, M. P., & Green, B. (2011). The effects of obesity on drug pharmacokinetics in humans. Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism and Toxicology, 7(6), 697–706. https://doi.org/10.1517/17425255.2011.570331 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1517/17425255.2011.570331

Mudd, T. W., Khalid, M., & Guddati, A. K. (2021). Cardiotoxicity of chemotherapy and targeted agents. American Journal of Cancer Research, 11(4), 1132–1147. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33948350%0Ahttp://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=PMC8085845

Mudiyanse, B., King, C., Kumari, D., Daupadi, M., Mudiyanse, B., & Bond, D. W. (2024). Comprehensive Review of Antihypertensive Medications: Mechanisms, Indications, Adverse Effects, and Monitoring COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF ANTIHYPERTENSIVE MEDICATIONS: MECHANISMS, INDICATIONS, ADVERSE EFFECTS, AND MONITORING Comprehensive Review of Antihyper. April. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380157069

Murru, A., Colom, F., Nivoli, A., Pacchiarotti, I., Valenti, M., & Vieta, E. (2011). When should mood stabilizers be withdrawn due to lack of efficacy? Some methodological considerations. European Psychiatry, 26(3), 183–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2010.09.012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2010.09.012

Musich, S., Wang, S. S., Slindee, L. B., Ruiz, J., & Yeh, C. S. (2020). Concurrent Use of Opioids with Other Central Nervous System-Active Medications among Older Adults. Population Health Management, 23(4), 286–296. https://doi.org/10.1089/pop.2019.0128 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/pop.2019.0128

Narang, P., Garg, V., & Sharma, A. (2023). Regulatory, safety and economic considerations of over-the-counter medicines in the Indian population. Discover Health Systems, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44250-023-00032-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s44250-023-00032-y

Nash, D. T. (1990). Alpha‐adrenergic blockers: Mechanism of action, blood pressure control, and effects on lipoprotein metabolism. Clinical Cardiology, 13(11), 764–772. https://doi.org/10.1002/clc.4960131104 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/clc.4960131104

Natalia M. Jasiak-Panek, Kevin T. Le, Thomas Moran, Mudahar, and S. (2019). Allergy and Sleep: Basic Principles and Clinical Practice. In Allergy and Sleep: Basic Principles and Clinical Practice (Issue June, pp. 1–463). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14738-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14738-9

Olea, A., Grochowski, J., Luetkemeyer, A., Robb, V., & Saberi, P. (2018). Role of a clinical pharmacist as part of a multidisciplinary care team in the treatment of HCV in patients living with HIV/HCV coinfection. Integrated Pharmacy Research and Practice, Volume 7, 105–111. https://doi.org/10.2147/iprp.s169282 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2147/IPRP.S169282

Oruch, R., Elderbi, M. A., Khattab, H. A., Pryme, I. F., & Lund, A. (2014). Lithium: A review of pharmacology, clinical uses, and toxicity. European Journal of Pharmacology, 740(June), 464–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.06.042 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.06.042

Osterhoudt, K. C., & Penning, and T. M. (2018). Drug Toxicity and Poisoning. In Pharmacology and Physiology for Anesthesia: Foundations and Clinical Application (pp. 613–628). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-48110-6.00030-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-48110-6.00030-2

P. Dooley, T. (2015). Treating Anxiety with either Beta Blockers or Antiemetic Antimuscarinic Drugs: A Review. Mental Health in Family Medicine, 11(02). https://doi.org/10.25149/1756-8358.1102013 DOI: https://doi.org/10.25149/1756-8358.1102013

P Sharma, O. (2014). Clinical Biochemistry of Hepatotoxicity. Journal of Clinical Toxicology, 04(01). https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0495.s4-001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0495.S4-001

Pan, S. D., Zhu, L. L., Chen, M., Xia, P., & Zhou, Q. (2016). Weight-based dosing in medication use: What should we know? Patient Preference and Adherence, 10, 549–560. https://doi.org/10.2147/PPA.S103156 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2147/PPA.S103156

Pandit, A., Sachdeva, T., & Bafna, P. (2012). Drug-induced hepatotoxicity: A review. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science, 2(5), 233–243. https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2012.2541 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2012.2541

Parekh, A., Fadiran, E. O., Uhl, K., & Throckmorton, D. C. (2011). Adverse effects in women: Implications for drug development and regulatory policies. Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology, 4(4), 453–466. https://doi.org/10.1586/ecp.11.29 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1586/ecp.11.29

Patrignani, P., Tacconelli, S., Bruno, A., Sostres, C., & Lanas, A. (2011). Managing the adverse effects of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology, 4(5), 605–621. https://doi.org/10.1586/ecp.11.36 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1586/ecp.11.36

Pazhayattil, G. S., & Shirali, A. C. (2014). Drug-induced impairment of renal function. International Journal of Nephrology and Renovascular Disease, 7, 457–468. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJNRD.S39747 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2147/IJNRD.S39747

Peloso, C., Baylatry, M.-T., Elefant, E., Fernandez, C., Joly, A.-C., & Isnard, F. (2013). 41st ESCP symposium on clinical pharmacy: personalised and safe therapy. International Journal of Clinical Pharmacy, 35(5), 866–1019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11096-013-9801-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11096-013-9801-0

Petkova, V., Georgieva, D., Dimitrov, M., & Nikolova, I. (2023). Off-Label Prescribing in Pediatric Population—Literature Review for 2012–2022. Pharmaceutics, 15(12), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15122652 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15122652

Pichichero, M. E., & Zagursky, R. (2014). Penicillin and Cephalosporin allergy. Annals of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, 112(5), 404–412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anai.2014.02.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anai.2014.02.005

Pichler, W. J. (2006). Adverse side-effects to biological agents. Allergy: European Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 61(8), 912–920. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1398-9995.2006.01058.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1398-9995.2006.01058.x

Pichler, W. J. (2019). Immune pathomechanism and classification of drug hypersensitivity. Allergy: European Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 74(8), 1457–1471. https://doi.org/10.1111/all.13765 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/all.13765

Pinky, Gupta, S., Krishnakumar, V., Sharma, Y., Dinda, A. K., & Mohanty, S. (2021). Mesenchymal Stem Cell Derived Exosomes: a Nano Platform for Therapeutics and Drug Delivery in Combating COVID-19. Stem Cell Reviews and Reports, 17(1), 33–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12015-020-10002-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12015-020-10002-z

Pusztaszeri, M. P., Genta, R. M., & Cryer, B. L. (2007). Drug-induced injury in the gastrointestinal tract: Clinical and pathologic considerations. Nature Clinical Practice Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 4(8), 442–453. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncpgasthep0896 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/ncpgasthep0896

Raihan, R., Wafa, A., Zhakfar, A. M., & Sudhakar CK. (2024). Oral Disintegrating Films: A Review. Journal of Natural Science Review, 2(2), 60–74. https://doi.org/10.62810/jnsr.v2i2.42 DOI: https://doi.org/10.62810/jnsr.v2i2.42

Rawlins, M. D. (1981). Clinical pharmacology: Adverse reactions to drugs. 282(March), 974–976. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.282.6268.974

Reinert, T., Baldotto, C. S. da R., Nunes, F. A. P., & Scheliga, A. A. de S. (2013). Bleomycin-Induced Lung Injury. Journal of Cancer Research, 2013, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/480608 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/480608

Rieckert, A., Trampisch, U. S., Klaaßen-Mielke, R., Drewelow, E., Esmail, A., Johansson, T., Keller, S., Kunnamo, I., Löffler, C., Mäkinen, J., Piccoliori, G., Vögele, A., & Sönnichsen, A. (2018). Polypharmacy in older patients with chronic diseases: A cross-sectional analysis of factors associated with excessive polypharmacy. BMC Family Practice, 19(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12875-018-0795-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12875-018-0795-5

Riordan, D. O., Walsh, K. A., Galvin, R., Sinnott, C., Kearney, P. M., & Byrne, S. (2016). The effect of pharmacist-led interventions in optimising prescribing in older adults in primary care: A systematic review. SAGE Open Medicine, 4. https://doi.org/10.1177/2050312116652568 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2050312116652568

Robert Cronin Yung Peng, Rose Khavari, N. D., & Kate Shannon ., G. O. D. P. J. S. J. M. C. F. R. N. (2016). Use of Functional Assessment to Define Therapeutic Goals and Treatment. Physiology & Behavior, 176(1), 139–148. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.15975.Use

Rohilla, A., & Yadav, S. (2013). Adverse drug reactions: An Overview. International Journal of Pharmacological Research, 3(1), 10–12.

Rose, M. A., & Kam, P. C. A. (2002). Gabapentin: Pharmacology and its use in pain management. Anaesthesia, 57(5), 451–462. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0003-2409.2001.02399.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0003-2409.2001.02399.x

Roth, R. A., Luyendyk, J. P., Maddox, J. F., & Ganey, P. E. (2003). Inflammation and drug idiosyncrasy - Is there a connection? Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 307(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1124/jpet.102.041624 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1124/jpet.102.041624

Rotta, I., Salgado, T. M., Silva, M. L., Correr, C. J., & Fernandez-Llimos, F. (2015). Effectiveness of clinical pharmacy services: an overview of systematic reviews (2000–2010). International Journal of Clinical Pharmacy, 37(5), 687–697. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11096-015-0137-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11096-015-0137-9

Routledge, P. A. (2003). Adverse Drug Reactions and Interactions: Mechanisms, Risk Factors, Detection, Management and Prevention. In Stephens’ Detection of New Adverse Drug Reactions. https://doi.org/10.1002/0470014199.ch2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/0470014199.ch2

Sacco, S., Braschinsky, M., Ducros, A., Lampl, C., Little, P., Van Den Brink, A. M., Pozo-Rosich, P., Reuter, U., Del Rio, M. S., Sinclair, A. J., Sinclair, A. J., Katsarava, Z., Katsarava, Z., Katsarava, Z., Katsarava, Z., & Martelletti, P. (2020). European headache federation consensus on the definition of resistant and refractory migraine. Journal of Headache and Pain, 21(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s10194-020-01130-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s10194-020-01130-5

Sahilu, T., Getachew, M., Melaku, T., & Sheleme, T. (2020). Adverse Drug Events and Contributing Factors Among Hospitalized Adult Patients at Jimma Medical Center, Southwest Ethiopia: A Prospective Observational Study. Current Therapeutic Research - Clinical and Experimental, 93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.curtheres.2020.100611 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.curtheres.2020.100611

Salgar, J. B., Bais, S. K., & Yeldi, B. V. (2024). THE SAFETY AND EFFICACY OF ATROVASTATIN IN EARLY. January. https://doi.org/10.20959/wjpr20241-30731

Saltiel, P. F., & Silvershein, D. I. (2015). Major depressive disorder: Mechanism-based prescribing for personalized medicine. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 11, 875–888. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S73261 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S73261

Saseen, J. J., Ripley, T. L., Bondi, D., Burke, J. M., Cohen, L. J., McBane, S., McConnell, K. J., Sackey, B., Sanoski, C., Simonyan, A., Taylor, J., & Vande Griend, J. P. (2017). ACCP Clinical Pharmacist Competencies. Pharmacotherapy, 37(5), 630–636. https://doi.org/10.1002/phar.1923 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/phar.1923

Schacht, J., Talaska, A. E., & Rybak, L. P. (2012). Cisplatin and Aminoglycoside Antibiotics: Hearing Loss and Its Prevention. Anatomical Record, 295(11), 1837–1850. https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.22578 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.22578

Schatz, S. N., & Weber, R. J. (2015). Adverse drug reactions. Lancet, 357(9255), 561. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71713-X DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71713-X

Shahzad, B., Mughal, M. N., Tanveer, M., Gupta, D., & Abbas, G. (2017). Is lithium biologically an important or toxic element to living organisms? An overview. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24(1), 103–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7898-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7898-0

Sherman, W. B. (1971). Drug allergy. Southern Medical Journal, 64(1), 22–26. https://doi.org/10.1097/00007611-197101000-00006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00007611-197101000-00006

Singh, D., Cho, W. C., & Upadhyay, G. (2016). Drug-induced liver toxicity and prevention by herbal antioxidants: An Overview. Frontiers in Physiology, 6(JAN), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2015.00363 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2015.00363

Snyder, H. (2019). Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines. Journal of Business Research, 104(July), 333–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039

Soma-Pillay, P., Nelson-Piercy, C., Tolppanen, H., & Mebazaa, A. (2016). Physiological changes in pregnancy. Cardiovascular Journal of Africa, 27(2), 89–94. https://doi.org/10.5830/CVJA-2016-021 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5830/CVJA-2016-021

Someko, H., Okazaki, Y., Kuniyoshi, Y., Yoshida, A., Baba, K., Ijiri, A., & Tsujimoto, Y. (2024). Prevalence of Drug Fever among Cases of Nosocomial Fever: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Internal Medicine, 63(8), 1067–1074. https://doi.org/10.2169/internalmedicine.2322-23 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2169/internalmedicine.2322-23

Sonnexa, K., Alleemuddera, H., & Chena, L. (2004). Clinical pharmacy and pharmacy practice. Lancet, 1(1), 2017. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijpp.12146/full

Soraci, L., Cherubini, A., Paoletti, L., Filippelli, G., Luciani, F., Laganà, P., Gambuzza, M. E., Filicetti, E., Corsonello, A., & Lattanzio, F. (2023). Safety and Tolerability of Antimicrobial Agents in the Older Patient. Drugs and Aging, 40(6), 499–526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40266-023-01019-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40266-023-01019-3

Spencer, P. S., & Lein, P. J. (2023). Neurotoxicity. Encyclopedia of Toxicology, Fourth Edition: Volume 1-9, 6, V6-727-V6-740. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824315-2.00548-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824315-2.00548-0

Spina, E., & Scordo, M. G. (2002). Clinically significant drug interactions with antidepressants in the elderly. Drugs and Aging, 19(4), 299–320. https://doi.org/10.2165/00002512-200219040-00004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00002512-200219040-00004

Staff, N. P., Cavaletti, G., Islam, B., Lustberg, M., Psimaras, D., & Tamburin, S. (2019). Platinum-induced peripheral neurotoxicity: From pathogenesis to treatment. Journal of the Peripheral Nervous System, 24(S2), S26–S39. https://doi.org/10.1111/jns.12335 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jns.12335

Steinman, M. A., Handler, S. M., Gurwitz, J. H., Schiff, G. D., & Covinsky, K. E. (2011). Beyond the prescription: Medication monitoring and adverse drug events in older adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 59(8), 1513–1520. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2011.03500.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2011.03500.x

Sutphin, C., Lee, K., Yepes, A. J., Uzuner, Ö., & McInnes, B. T. (2020). Adverse drug event detection using reason assignments in FDA drug labels. Journal of Biomedical Informatics, 110(September), 103552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbi.2020.103552 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbi.2020.103552

Tamargo, J., Le Heuzey, J. Y., & Mabo, P. (2015). Narrow therapeutic index drugs: A clinical pharmacological consideration to flecainide. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 71(5), 549–567. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00228-015-1832-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00228-015-1832-0

Tembe-Fokunang, E., Djuidje Nganoue, M., Edwige, V., Mayoudom, T., Aghem, F. K., Sack Françoise, N., Michel, T., Claude, T. T., Samuel, N., Essi, M. J., Mbanya, D., Abena, M. T., Ondoua, O., & Fokunang, C. N. (2022). The Scope of Aplastic Anaemia: Etiology, Pathophysiology, Pharmacotherapy and Pharmacoeconomic Impact in Clinical Patient Management. International Journal of Research and Reports in Hematology, 5(2), 243–260. https://journalijr2h.com/index.php/IJR2H/article/view/72

Tewabe, A., Abate, A., Tamrie, M., Seyfu, A., & Siraj, E. A. (2021). Targeted drug delivery — from magic bullet to nanomedicine: Principles, challenges, and future perspectives. Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare, 14, 1711–1724. https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S313968 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S313968

Tipping, B. N. (2006). The characterization of older persons how present at a tertiary emergency unit; in particular the contribution of adverse drug events: a cross-sectional study. Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling, 53(July), 1–82. http://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/fulltext/353506

Tiranini, L. (2022). Recent advances in understanding / management of premenstrual dysphoric disorder / premenstrual syndrome. 11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.12703/r/11-11

Tuccinardi, D., Watanabe, M., Masi, D., Monte, L., Meffe, L. B., Cavallari, I., Nusca, A., Maddaloni, E., Gnessi, L., Napoli, N., Manfrini, S., & Grigioni, F. (2024). Rethinking weight loss treatments as cardiovascular medicine in obesity, a comprehensive review. European Journal of Preventive Cardiology, 31(10), 1260–1273. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurjpc/zwae171 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/eurjpc/zwae171

Udoetuk, J. D., Dai, Y., Ying, G., Daniel, E., Gangaputra, S., Rosenbaum, J. T., Suhler, E. B., Thorne, J. E., Foster, C. S., & Jabs, D. A. (2013). Risk of corticosteroid-induced hyperglycemia requiring medical therapy among patients with inflammatory eye diseases. 119(8), 1569–1574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2012.01.043.Risk DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2012.01.043

van den Anker, J., Reed, M. D., Allegaert, K., & Kearns, G. L. (2018). Developmental Changes in Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 58(May), S10–S25. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcph.1284 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jcph.1284

Van Norman, G. A. (2023). Off-Label Use vs Off-Label Marketing of Drugs: Part 1: Off-Label Use—Patient Harms and Prescriber Responsibilities. JACC: Basic to Translational Science, 8(2), 224–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacbts.2022.12.011 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacbts.2022.12.011

Vega, A. J., Smith, C., Matejowsky, H. G., Thornhill, K. J., Borne, G. E., Mosieri, C. N., Shekoohi, S., Cornett, E. M., & Kaye, A. D. (2023). Warfarin and Antibiotics: Drug Interactions and Clinical Considerations. Life, 13(8), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/life13081661 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/life13081661

Volkan, K. (2020). Schizophrenia: Epidemiology, Causes, Neurobiology, Pathophysiology, and Treatment. Journal of Health and Medical Sciences, 3(4), 487–521. https://doi.org/DOI: 10.31014/aior.1994.03.04.143 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31014/aior.1994.03.04.143

Wang, H. (2011). Agents that induce pseudo-allergic reaction. Drug Discoveries & Therapeutics, 5(5). https://doi.org/10.5582/ddt.2011.v5.5.211 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5582/ddt.2011.v5.5.211

Warrington, R., Silviu-Dan, F., & Wong, T. (2018). Drug allergy. Allergy, Asthma and Clinical Immunology, 14(s2), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13223-018-0289-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13223-018-0289-y

White, P. F., White, L. M., Monk, T., Jakobsson, J., Raeder, J., Mulroy, M. F., Bertini, L., Torri, G., Solca, M., Pittoni, G., & Bettelli, G. (2012). Perioperative care for the older outpatient undergoing ambulatory surgery. Anesthesia and Analgesia, 114(6), 1190–1215. https://doi.org/10.1213/ANE.0b013e31824f19b8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1213/ANE.0b013e31824f19b8

Wolff, J., Hefner, G., Normann, C., Kaier, K., Binder, H., Hiemke, C., Toto, S., Domschke, K., Marschollek, M., & Klimke, A. (2021). Polypharmacy and the risk of drug–drug interactions and potentially inappropriate medications in hospital psychiatry. Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety, 30(9), 1258–1268. https://doi.org/10.1002/pds.5310 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pds.5310

Wu, X., Cobbina, S. J., Mao, G., Xu, H., Zhang, Z., & Yang, L. (2016). A review of toxicity and mechanisms of individual and mixtures of heavy metals in the environment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(9), 8244–8259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6333-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6333-x

Yoshimura, Y., Matsumoto, A., & Momosaki, R. (2022). Pharmacotherapy and the Role of Pharmacists in Rehabilitation Medicine. Progress in Rehabilitation Medicine, 7(0), n/a. https://doi.org/10.2490/prm.20220025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2490/prm.20220025

Zhang, Li, Q., Shi, C., & Zhang, X. (2017). Drug-induced pseudoallergy: A review of the causes and mechanisms. Pharmacology, 101(1–2), 104–110. https://doi.org/10.1159/000479878 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1159/000479878

Zhang, Y. J., Li, S., Gan, R. Y., Zhou, T., Xu, D. P., & Li, H. Bin. (2015). Impacts of gut bacteria on human health and diseases. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 16(4), 7493–7519. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms16047493 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms16047493